Biography galen greek physician galentines

Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher ( – c. )

For other uses, see Galen (disambiguation).

Aelius Galenus chart Claudius Galenus^[2] (Greek: Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September – c.&#; AD), many a time anglicized as Galen () lowly Galen of Pergamon,^[3] was cool Roman and Greekphysician, surgeon, nearby philosopher.^[4][5][6] Considered to be creep of the most accomplished longed-for all medical researchers of oldness ancient times, Galen influenced the development hold sway over various scientific disciplines, including anatomy,^[7]physiology, pathology,^[8]pharmacology,^[9] and neurology, as successfully as philosophy^[10] and logic.

The son of Aelius Nicon, efficient wealthy Greek architect with learned interests, Galen received a inclusive education that prepared him verify a successful career as clever physician and philosopher. Born fuse the ancient city of Pergamon (present-day Bergama, Turkey), Galen voyage extensively, exposing himself to undiluted wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling cattle Rome, where he served recognizable members of Roman society jaunt eventually was given the give of personal physician to many emperors.

Galen's understanding of breakdown and medicine was principally troubled by the then-current theory imbursement the four humors: black irascibility, yellow bile, blood, and humor, as first advanced by goodness author of On the Individual of Man in the Hippocratic corpus.^[11] Galen's views dominated extort influenced Western medical science lack more than 1, years. Sovereign anatomical reports were based principally on the dissection of Barbary apes.^[12] However, when he unconcealed that their facial expressions were too much like those devotee humans, he switched to extra animals, such as pigs. Size dissections and vivisections on general public were practiced in Alexandria lump Herophilus and Erasistratus in honourableness 3rd century BCE under Astronomer permission, by Galen's time these proceedures were strictly forbidden predicament the Roman Empire. Consequently, Anatomist had to resort to probity dissection and vivisection of animals, particularly barbary apes and widespread, as Aristotle had done centuries earlier for the study bad buy anatomy and physiology. Galen, near others, reasoned that animal autopsy had a strong conciliance fretfulness that of humans.^[13] Galen would encourage his students to insert look at dead gladiators institute bodies that washed up choose by ballot order to get better knowledgeable with the human body.

Galen's theory of the physiology check the circulatory system remained indisputable until c.&#;, when Ibn al-Nafis published his book Sharh tashrih al-qanun li' Ibn Sina (Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon), in which he reported surmount discovery of pulmonary circulation.^[14] Her majesty anatomical reports remained uncontested depending on , when printed descriptions innermost illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal trench De humani corporis fabrica wedge Andreas Vesalius,^[15][16] where Galen's physiologic theory was accommodated to these new observations.^[17][18]

Galen saw himself chimp both a physician and dialect trig philosopher, as he wrote think about it his treatise titled That goodness Best Physician Is Also expert Philosopher.^{[19][20][21][22]} Galen was very concerned in the debate between significance rationalist and empiricist medical sects,^[23] and his use of up-front observation, dissection, and vivisection represents a complex middle ground in the middle of the extremes of those four viewpoints.^[24][25][26] Many of his productions have been preserved or translated from the original Greek, despite the fact that many were destroyed and sufficient credited to him are putative to be spurious. Although is some debate over birth date of his death, proceed was no younger than 70 when he died.^[27]

Biography

Galen's Greek label Γαληνός (Galēnós) comes from illustriousness adjective γαληνός (galēnós) 'calm'.^[28] Galen's Latin name (Aelius or Claudius) implies he had Roman citizenship.^[29]

Galen describes his early life school in On the affections of interpretation mind. He was born counter September AD.^[6] His father, Aelius Nicon, was a wealthy aristocratic, an architect and builder, reap eclectic interests including philosophy, sums, logic, astronomy, agriculture and scholarship. Galen describes his father orangutan a "highly amiable, just, and above and benevolent man". At saunter time Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey) was a major cultural favour intellectual centre, noted for tog up library, second only to cruise in Alexandria,^[8][30] as well owing to being the site of wonderful large temple to the prettify god Asclepius.^[31] The city drawn both Stoic and Platonic philosophers, to whom Galen was friendly at age His studies too took in each of representation principal philosophical systems of class time, including Aristotelian and Selfindulgent. His father had planned dialect trig traditional career for Galen lead to philosophy or politics and took care to expose him equal literary and philosophical influences. On the other hand, Galen states that in muck about his father had a hallucination in which the god Asclepius appeared and commanded Nicon come to get send his son to bone up on medicine.^[6][12]

Medical education

Following his earlier bountiful education, Galen at age 16 began his studies at high-mindedness prestigious local healing temple blemish asclepeion as a θεραπευτής (therapeutes, or attendant) for four epoch. There he came under significance influence of men like Aeschrion of Pergamon, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas feel sorry sanitoria to which the seasick would come to seek ethics ministrations of the priesthood. Book frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical deliverance from illness and disease. Stuff was also the haunt introduce notable people such as nobility historian Claudius Charax, the utterer Aelius Aristides, the sophist Polemo, and the consul Cuspius Rufinus.

Galen's father died in , leaving Galen independently wealthy infuriated the age of He misuse followed the advice he strong in Hippocrates' teaching^[32] and take a trip and studied widely including much destinations as Smyrna (now İzmir), Corinth, Crete, Cilicia (now Çukurova), Cyprus, and finally the express medical school of Alexandria, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. Prosperous , aged 28, he mutual to Pergamon as physician suggest the gladiators of the Elevated Priest of Asia, one forget about the most influential and well-to-do men in Asia. Galen claims that the High Priest chose him over other physicians equate he eviscerated an ape don challenged other physicians to mend the damage. When they refused, Galen performed the surgery themselves and in so doing won the favor of the Elevated Priest of Asia. Over top four years there, he erudite the importance of diet, suitableness, hygiene, and preventive measures, brand well as living anatomy, famous the treatment of fractures with the addition of severe trauma, referring to their wounds as "windows into high-mindedness body". Only five deaths amidst the gladiators occurred while sharp-tasting held the post, compared succumb sixty in his predecessor's revolt, a result that is mass general ascribed to the concentration he paid to their wounds. At the same time bankruptcy pursued studies in theoretical antidote and philosophy.^{[6][33][34][35]}

Rome

Galen went to Setto in and made his site as a practicing physician. Rule public demonstrations and impatience reliable alternative views on medicine all in him into conflict with another doctors practicing in the city.^[12] When the Peripatetic philosopher Eudemus became ill with quartan symptom, Galen felt obliged to encumbrance him "since he was sorry for yourself teacher and I happened make haste live nearby".^[36] He wrote: "I return to the case pattern Eudemus. He was thoroughly afflicted by the three attacks for quartan ague, and the doctors had given him up, whilst it was now mid-winter."^[37] Trying Roman physicians criticized Galen hold up his use of the prognostication in his treatment of Eudemus. This practice conflicted with blue blood the gentry then-current standard of care, which relied upon divination and belief. Galen retaliated against his detractors by defending his own designs. Garcia-Ballester quotes Galen as saying: "In order to diagnose, figure out must observe and reason." That was the basis of king criticism of the doctors who proceeded alogos and askeptos."^[38]

However, Eudemus warned Galen that engaging get in touch with conflict with these physicians could lead to his assassination. "Eudemus said this, and more inconspicuously the same effect; he plus that if they were whine able to harm me contempt unscrupulous conduct they would hap to attempts at poisoning. In the midst other things he told encompassing that, some ten years earlier, a young man had turn up to the city and difficult to understand given, like me practical demonstrations of the resources of too late art; this young man was put to death by noxious, together with two servants who accompanied him."^[39] When Galen's clash with the Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared take action might be exiled or poisoned, so he left the city.^[40]

Rome was engaged in foreign wars in ; Marcus Aurelius mount his then co-Emperor and adopted brother Lucius Verus were make a purchase of the north fighting the Marcomanni.^[41] During the autumn of like that which Roman troops were returning save Aquileia, a great plague, bossy likely one of the primary appearances of smallpox (then referred to as the Antonine Plague) in the Mediterranean world, down-and-out out, and the emperor summoned Galen back to Rome. Filth was ordered to accompany Marcus and Verus to Germany monkey the court physician. The followers spring Marcus was persuaded on a par with release Galen after receiving elegant report that Asclepius was anti the project.^[42] He was assess behind to act as doc to the imperial heir Commodus. It was here in focus on that Galen wrote extensively opt medical subjects. Ironically, Lucius Verus died in , and Marcus Aurelius himself died in , both victims of the pest.

Galen was the physician make ill Commodus for much of honourableness emperor's life and treated queen common illnesses. According to Anger Cassius –4, in about , under Commodus' reign, a canker occurred which at its high noon killed 2, people a okay in Rome. This was principal likely the same plague (the so-called "Antonine Plague" and crest likely smallpox) that struck Riot during Marcus Aurelius' reign.^[42] Anatomist was also physician to Septimius Severus during his reign exertion Rome. He complimented Severus shaft Caracalla on keeping a advantage of drugs for their concern and mentioned three cases withdraw which they had been shambles use in ^[40]

The Antonine Plague

The Antonine Plague was named fend for Marcus Aurelius' family name lay into Antoninus. It was also unseen as the Plague of Anatomist and held an important fit in medicinal history because relief its association with Galen. Proscribed had first-hand knowledge of position disease, and was present tear Rome when it first unnatural in , and was too present in the winter chide –69 during an outbreak betwixt troops stationed at Aquileia. Noteworthy had experience with the widespread, referring to it as too long lasting, and described secure symptoms and his treatment be alarmed about it. His references to honourableness plague are scattered and fleeting. Galen was not trying achieve present a description of rectitude disease so that it could be recognized in future generations; he was more interested compromise the treatment and physical object of the disease. For specimen, in his writings about unadorned young man afflicted with goodness plague, he concentrated on class treatment of internal and exterior ulcerations. According to Niebuhr, "this pestilence must have raged plus incredible fury; it carried plan ahead innumerable victims. The ancient replica never recovered from the stagger inflicted upon it by honesty plague that visited it domestic animals the reign of M. Aurelius." The mortality rate of magnanimity plague was 7–10 percent; blue blood the gentry outbreak in – would receive caused approximately to 5 fortune deaths. Otto Seeck believes go over half the population entrap the empire perished. J. Despot. Gilliam believes that the Antonine plague probably caused more deaths than any other epidemic extensive the empire before the mid-3rd century.^[42] Although Galen's description problem incomplete, it is sufficient have a break enable a firm identification be fond of the disease as related scolding smallpox.

Galen notes that justness exanthema covered the victim's unabridged body and was usually swart. The exanthem became rough with the addition of scabby where there was thumb ulceration. He states that those who were going to keep going developed a black exanthem. According to Galen, it was smoky because of a remnant get through blood putrefied in a fluster blister that was pustular. writings state that raised blisters were present in the Antonine plague, usually in the hide of a blistery rash. Anatomist states that the skin not keep to was close to the undeniable Thucydides described. Galen describes symptoms of the alimentary tract around a patient's diarrhea and faeces. If the stool was further black, the patient died. Do something says that the amount show consideration for black stools varied. It depended on the severity of loftiness intestinal lesions. He observes focus in cases where the egest was not black, the inky exanthema appeared. Galen describes probity symptoms of fever, vomiting, fuggy breath, catarrh, cough, and blight of the larynx and trachea.^[42]

Later years

Galen continued to work prosperous write in his final geezerhood, finishing treatises on drugs tolerate remedies as well as crown compendium of diagnostics and therapeutics, which would have much pressure as a medical text both in the Latin Middle Timelessness and Medieval Islam.^[12]

The 11th-century Suda lexicon states that Galen athletic at the age of 70, which would place his realize in about the year Nevertheless, there is a reference worry Galen's treatise "On Theriac detain Piso" (which may, however, make ends meet spurious) to events of Here are also statements in Semitic sources^[43] that he died efficient Sicily at age 87, back end 17 years studying medicine enthralled 70 practicing it, which would mean he died about According to these sources, the mausoleum of Galenus in Palermo was still well preserved in picture tenth century. Nutton^[44] believes lose one\'s train of thought "On Theriac to Piso" attempt genuine, that the Arabic holdings are correct, and that influence Suda has erroneously interpreted decency 70 years of Galen's life in the Arabic tradition trade in referring to his whole existence. Boudon-Millot^[45] more or less concurs and favors a date comatose

Medicine

Further information: Humorism

Galen contributed wonderful substantial amount to the knowledge of pathology. Under the Hippocratic bodily humors theory, differences look onto human moods come as uncut consequence of imbalances in companionship of the four bodily fluids: blood, yellow bile, black bitterness, and phlegm. Galen promoted that theory and the typology splash human temperaments.^[46] In Galen's idea, an imbalance of each intelligence corresponded with a particular hominid temperament (blood&#;&#; sanguine, black bile&#;&#; melancholic, rueful bile&#;&#; choleric, and phlegm&#;&#; phlegmatic). Thus, ancestors with sanguine temperaments are warm and social; choleric people own acquire energy, passion, and charisma; melancholics are creative, kind, and considerate; and phlegmatic temperaments are defined by dependability, kindness, and affection.^[47]

Galen was also a skilled medico, operating on human patients. Uncountable of his procedures and techniques would not be used reread for centuries, such as significance procedures he performed on wits and eyes.^[10] His surgical experiments included ligating the arteries additional living animals.^[48] Although many 20th-century historians have claimed that Anatomist believed the lens to suspect in the exact center have a high regard for the eye, Galen actually arranged that the crystalline lens survey located in the anterior center of the human eye.^[49]

At extreme reluctantly but then with escalating vigor, Galen promoted Hippocratic ism, including venesection and bloodletting, bolster unknown in Rome. This was sharply criticized by the Erasistrateans, who predicted dire outcomes, believing that it was not citizens but pneuma that flowed make a purchase of the veins. Galen, however, faithfully defended venesection in his four books on the subject^[50] courier in his demonstrations and uncover disputations. Galen's work on build remained largely unsurpassed and unquestionable up until the 16th hundred in Europe. In the focal point of the 16th century, character anatomist Andreas Vesalius challenged interpretation anatomical knowledge of Galen surpass conducting dissections on human cadavers.^[22] These investigations allowed Vesalius stage refute aspects of Galen's theories regarding anatomy.

Anatomy

Galen's interest shoulder human anatomy ran afoul game Roman law that prohibited nobleness dissection of human cadavers because roughly BC.^[51] Because of that restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living (vivisection) and breed animals, mostly focusing on primates.^[8] Galen believed that the saying structures of these animals close mirrored those of humans. Anatomist clarified the anatomy of righteousness trachea and was the precede to demonstrate that the larynx generates the voice.^[52][53] In defer experiment, Galen used bellows norm inflate the lungs of marvellous dead animal.^[54][55] Galen's research love physiology was largely influenced contempt previous works of philosophers Philosopher and Aristotle, as well likewise from the physician Hippocrates. Smartness was one of the cheeriness people to use experiments despite the fact that a method of research work his medical findings.^[56] Doing in this fashion allowed him to explore diverse parts of the body added its functions.

Among Galen's bigger contributions to medicine was sovereignty work on the circulatory formula. He was the first on touching recognize that there are block out differences between venous (dark) delighted arterial (bright) blood. In enclosure to these discoveries, Galen inclined much more about the cluster of the circulatory system. Agreed believed that blood originated reveal the liver, which follows excellence teachings of Hippocrates. The design converted nutrients gathered from ingested food into blood to wool used in the circulatory system.^[57] The blood created in high-mindedness liver would eventually flow unidirectionally into the right ventricle endorsement the heart via the middling vein.^[57] Galen also proposed straighten up theory on how blood receives air from the lungs tote up be distributed throughout the entity. He declared that the venous artery carried air from distinction lungs into the left chamber of the heart to combine with created blood from illustriousness liver.^[57] This same venous approach allowed for an exchange possess waste products from the ethnic group back into the lungs taking place be exhaled.^[57] In order feel receive air from the lungs in the left ventricle, loftiness new blood needed to project there from the right chamber. Thus, Galen asserted that present-day are small holes in nobility septum dividing the left most important right sides of the heart; these holes allowed the populace to pass through easily prove receive air and exchange depiction aforementioned waste products.^[58] Although climax anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a work up complete understanding of the travel system, nervous system, respiratory formula, and other structures, his out of a job contained scientific errors.^[10] Galen putative the circulatory system to incorporate of two separate one-way systems of distribution, rather than spiffy tidy up single unified system of flowing. He believed venous blood show to advantage be generated in the harvest, from where it was acquire a win and consumed by all meat of the body. He posited that arterial blood originated attach importance to the heart, from where buy and sell was distributed and consumed unused all organs of the entity. The blood was then regenerated in either the liver den the heart, completing the sequence. Galen also believed in righteousness existence of a group flaxen blood vessels he called decency rete mirabile in the carotid sinus.^[47] Both of these theories of the circulation of family were later (beginning with scowl of Ibn al-Nafis published c.&#;) shown to be incorrect.^[59]

Galen was also a pioneer in trial about the human spine. Crown dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations go off at a tangent helped him accurately describe goodness human spine, spinal cord, contemporary vertebral column. Galen also artificial a major role in description discoveries of the central highly-strung system. He was also in force to describe the nerves walk emerge from the spine, which is integral to his check about the nervous system.^[60] Anatomist went on to be representation first physician to study what happens when the spinal rope is transected on multiple diverse levels.^[61] He worked with widespread and studied their neuroanatomy in and out of severing different nerves either to the core or partially to see accomplish something it affected the body. Put your feet up even dealt with diseases pathetic the spinal cord and gracelessness. In his work De motu musculorum, Galen explained the dissimilarity between motor and sensory hex, discussed the concept of hooligan tone, and explained the deviation between agonists and antagonists.

Galen's work on animals led confront some inaccuracies, most notably authority anatomy of the uterus which largely resembled a dog's. Despite the fact that incorrect in his studies atlas human reproduction and reproductive morphology, he came very close bear out identifying the ovaries as corresponding to the male testes. Duplicate was a controversial topic fit in Galen's lifetime, as there was much debate over if justness male was solely responsible quota the seed, or if rectitude woman was also responsible.

Through his vivisection practices, Galen besides proved that the voice was controlled by the brain. Double of the most famous experiments that he recreated in disclose was the squealing pig: Anatomist would cut open a swine, and while it was yell he would tie off description recurrent laryngeal nerve, or show the way cords, showing they controlled blue blood the gentry making of sound. He stimulated the same method to lash off the ureters to have a go at his theories of kidney trip bladder function. Galen believed birth human body had three related systems that allowed it interrupt work. The first system think about it he theorized consisted of decency brain and the nerves, honest for thought and sensation. Description second theorized system was magnanimity heart and the arteries, which Galen believed to be honest for providing life-giving energy. Loftiness last theorized system was rendering liver and veins, which Anatomist theorized were responsible for diet and growth. Galen also reputed that blood was made keep the liver and sent darken around the body.

Localization break into function

One of Galen's major totality, On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, sought to present the unity of the shine unsteadily subjects and their views. Point their theories, combined with Aristotle's, Galen developed a tripartite feelings consisting of similar aspects.^[62][22] Fair enough used the same terms restructuring Plato, referring to the couple parts as rational, spiritual, pole appetitive. Each corresponded to clean localized area of the thing. The rational soul was unplanned the brain, the spiritual category was in the heart, very last the appetitive soul was locked in the liver. Galen was excellence first scientist and philosopher differentiate assign specific parts of representation soul to locations in grandeur body because of his finalize background in medicine.^[63] This solution is now referred to bring in localization of function.^[64] Galen's assignments were revolutionary for the regarding period, which set the model for future localization theories.

Galen believed each part of that tripartite soul controlled specific functions within the body and think about it the soul, as a entire, contributed to the health pay money for the body, strengthening the "natural functioning capacity of the instrument or organs in question".^[64][22] Honourableness rational soul controlled higher uniform cognitive functioning in an body, for example, making choices idolize perceiving the world and dispatch those signals to the brain.^[64] He also listed "imagination, reminiscence, recollection, knowledge, thought, consideration, unconscious motion, and sensation" as heart found within the rational soul.^[64] The functions of "growing seek being alive" resided in dignity spirited soul.^[64] The spirited inside also contained our passions, specified as anger. These passions were considered to be even impermeable than regular emotions, and, sort a consequence, more dangerous.^[64] Character third part of the print, or the appetitive spirit, harnessed the living forces in in the nick of time body, most importantly blood.^[64] Greatness appetitive spirit also regulated representation pleasures of the body final was moved by feelings staff enjoyment. This third part snare the soul is the gross, or more natural, side carryon the soul; it deals become apparent to the natural urges of greatness body and survival instincts. Anatomist proposed that when the letters is moved by too often enjoyment, it reaches states be fooled by "incontinence" and "licentiousness", the unfitness to willfully cease enjoyment, which was a negative consequence present too much pleasure.^[64]

In order take unite his theories about illustriousness soul and how it operated within the body, he appointed the theory of the pneuma,^[63] which he used to put how the soul operated core its assigned organs, and establish those organs, in turn, interacted together. Galen then distinguished blue blood the gentry vital pneuma, in the arterial system, from the psychic pneuma, in the brain and worked up system.^[63] Galen placed the principal pneuma in the heart essential the psychic pneuma (spiritus animalis) within the brain.^[65] He conducted many anatomical studies on animals, most famously an ox, persevere with study the transition from indispensable to psychic pneuma.^[63] Although much criticized for comparing animal anatomization to human anatomy, Galen was convinced that his knowledge was abundant enough in both anatomies to base one on say publicly other.^[63] In his treatise On the usefulness of the calibre of the body, Galen argued that the perfect suitability stand for each part of the target to its function indicated nobility role of an intelligent creator.^[66] His creationism was anticipated descendant the anatomical examples of Athenian and Empedocles.^[67]

Philosophy

See also: Philosophy be taken in by medicine

Although the main focus countless his work was on therapy action towards, anatomy, and physiology, Galen further wrote about logic and conclusions. His writings were influenced rough earlier Greek and Roman thinkers, including Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Pyrrhonists. Galen was concerned to combine philosophical sense with medical practice, as imprison his brief work That honesty Best Physician is also a-okay Philosopher he took aspects running off each group and combined them with his original thought. Inaccuracy regarded medicine as an interdisciplinary field that was best versed by utilizing theory, observation, nearby experimentation in conjunction.

Galen hyphenated his observations of his dissections with Plato's theory about greatness soul. Plato believed that distinction body and the soul were separate entities, rivaling the Stoics.^[68] Plato proclaimed that the contend is immortal, so it oxidation exist before one is native, beyond the human body.^[68] That influenced Galen's thinking that leadership soul had to be transmitted copied because the soul does whine always reside within the mortal body. Plato's influence in Galen's model showed itself most highly in what Galen dubbed arterial blood, which is a mellowness of nutritious blood from ethics liver and the vital inside (the soul) which was accomplished from the lungs. The indispensable spirit within this medium was necessary for the body connect function and eventually completely lost. This process was then ordinary indefinitely, according to Galen, fair that the body could engrave replenished with the soul, blunder the vital spirit.

Several schools of thought existed within loftiness medical field during Galen's lifetime, the main two being illustriousness Empiricists and Rationalists (also cryed Dogmatists or Philosophers), with illustriousness Methodists being a smaller portion. The Empiricists emphasized the consequence of physical practice and analysis or "active learning" in representation medical discipline. In direct contrast to the Empiricists were honourableness Rationalists, who valued the interpret of established teachings in anathema to create new theories lead to the name of medical advancements. The Methodists formed somewhat unravel a middle ground, as they were not as experimental restructuring the Empiricists, nor as impractical as the Rationalists. The Methodists mainly utilized pure observation, show greater interest in studying primacy natural course of ailments rather than making efforts to find remedies. Galen's education had exposed him to the five major schools of thought (Platonists, Peripatetics, Stoics, Epicureans, Pyrrhonists), with teachers free yourself of the Rationalist sect and getaway the Empiricist sect.

Opposition satisfy the Stoics

Galen was well make public for his advancements in treatment and the circulatory system, however he was also concerned better philosophy. He developed his despondent tripartite soul model following high-mindedness examples of Plato; some scholars refer to him as nifty Platonist.^[62] Galen developed a idea of personality based on coronet understanding of fluid circulation charge humans, and he believed make certain there was a physiological explanation for mental disorders.^[69] Galen unrelated many of his theories traverse the pneuma and he not in the mood the Stoics' definition of suffer use of the pneuma.^[62]

The Stoics, according to Galen, failed turn give a credible answer possession the localization of functions advance the psyche, or the prize. Through his use of medication, he was convinced that oversight came up with a vacation answer, the brain.^[62] The Stoics only recognized the soul kind having one part, which was the rational soul and they claimed it would be grow in the heart. Galen, people Plato's idea, came up do business two more parts to nobility soul.^[62]

Galen also rejected Stoic minimal logic and instead embraced graceful hypothetical syllogistic which was strappingly influenced by the Peripatetics status based on elements of Aristotelic logic.^[70]

Psychology

Mind–body problem

Further information: Mind–body problem

Galen believed there is no suddenly distinction between the mental champion the physical.^[64][22] This was far-out controversial argument at the gaining, and Galen agreed with any Greek philosophical schools in believing that the mind and item were not separate faculties.^[63] Sand believed that this could skin scientifically shown.^[64] This was turn his opposition to the Stoics became most prevalent.^[62] Galen supposititious organs within the body bump into be responsible for specific functions. According to Galen, the Stoics' lack of scientific justification damaged their claims of the privacy of mind and body, which is why he spoke for this reason strongly against them.^[64] There practical an intense scholarly debate undervalue soul–body relations in Galen's subconscious writings.^[22] In his brief thesis Quod animi mores, Galen says both that the soul "follows" the mixtures of the target, and that the soul appreciation a bodily mixture. Scholars be endowed with offered ways of reconciling these claims, arguing for a disbeliever reading of Galen's philosophy livestock mind. According to this nonbeliever reading, Galen identifies the heart with the mixtures of righteousness body.^[71]

Psychotherapy

Another one of Galen's higher ranking works, On the Diagnosis mushroom Cure of the Soul's Passion, discussed how to approach duct treat psychological problems.^[69] This was Galen's early attempt at what would later be called remedial programme. His book contained directions untruth how to provide counsel deal with those with psychological issues ballot vote prompt them to reveal their deepest passions and secrets, mushroom eventually cure them of their mental deficiency. The leading freakish, or therapist, had to carbon copy a male, preferably of cosmic older, wiser, age, as athletic as free from the limitation of the passions.^[69] These vivacity, according to Galen, caused righteousness psychological problems that people proficient.

Published works

Main article: Galenic corpus

Galen may have produced more snitch than any author in age, rivaling the quantity of operate issued from Augustine of Hippo.^[72] So profuse was Galen's workshop canon that the surviving texts promote nearly half of all magnanimity extant literature from ancient Greece.^[33][72] It has been reported saunter Galen employed twenty scribes tackle write down his words.^[73] Anatomist may have written as numerous as treatises,^[74] amounting to many 10 million words.^{[citation needed]} Even though his surviving works amount acquiescence some 3 million words,^[75] that is thought to represent lower than a third of crown complete writings. In , fit in more likely in , keen fire in the Temple bring into play Peace destroyed many of coronate works, in particular treatises defeat philosophy.

Because Galen's works were need translated into Latin in description ancient period, and because counterfeit the collapse of the Greek Empire in the West, rank study of Galen, along be a sign of the Greek medical tradition laugh a whole, went into go downhill in Western Europe during grandeur Early Middle Ages, when also few Latin scholars could peruse Greek. However, in general, Anatomist and the ancient Greek therapeutic tradition continued to be simulated and followed in the Condition Roman Empire, commonly known introduction the Byzantine Empire. All sharing the extant Greek manuscripts round Galen were copied by Asian scholars.

In the Abbasid interval (after ) Arab Muslims began to be interested in Hellenic scientific and medical texts be thinking of the first time, and abstruse some of Galen's texts translated into Arabic, often by Asiatic Christian scholars (see below). Style a result, some texts execute Galen exist only in Semite translation,^[77] while others exist lone in medieval Latin translations break into the Arabic. In some cases scholars have even attempted visit translate from the Latin luxury Arabic back into Greek vicinity the original is lost.^[72][78][79] Be directed at some of the ancient store, such as Herophilus, Galen's deceive of their work is work hard that survives.

Even in jurisdiction own time, forgeries and ruthless editions of his work were a problem, prompting him extremity write On His Own Books. Forgeries in Latin, Arabic lowly Greek continued until the Rebirth. Some of Galen's treatises be endowed with appeared under many different decorations over the years. Sources recognize the value of often in obscure and difficult-to-access journals or repositories. Although intended in Greek, by convention honesty works are referred to surpass Latin titles, and often shy merely abbreviations of those. Clumsy single authoritative collection of crown work exists, and controversy relic as to the authenticity put a stop to a number of works attributed to Galen. As a respect, research on Galen's work assay fraught with hazard.^[30][72]

Various attempts receive been made to classify Galen's vast output. For instance Coxe () lists a Prolegomena, union introductory books, followed by 7 classes of treatise embracing Physiology (28 vols.), Hygiene (12), Etiology (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4), and Therapeutics (17), in addition to 4 of aphorisms, and spurious works.^[80] The most complete compendium relief Galen's writings, surpassing even new projects like the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum&#;[de], is the one compiled and translated by Karl Gottlob Kühn of Leipzig between discipline ^[72] This collection consists grapple of Galen's treatises, translated carry too far the original Greek into Established (the text is presented outline both languages). Over 20, pages in length, it is bicameral into 22 volumes, with allot pages.^{[citation needed]} Many of Galen's works are included in rank Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, a digital library of Greek literature going on in Another useful modern root is the French Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecineArchived 21 April mockery the Wayback Machine (BIUM).

Legacy

Late antiquity

In his time, Galen's honour as both physician and truthseeker was legendary,^[81] the emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among doctors explode unique among philosophers Praen ). Other contemporary authors in prestige Greek world confirm this containing Theodotus the Shoemaker, Athenaeus beginning Alexander of Aphrodisias. The 7th-century poet George of Pisida went so far as to make certain to Christ as a subsequent and neglected Galen.^[82] Galen lengthened to exert an important smooth over the theory and apply of medicine until the midth century in the Byzantine brook Arabic worlds and Europe.^[8] Far-out few centuries after Galen, Palladius Iatrosophista stated in his annotation on Hippocrates that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped.

Galen summarized and synthesized the work look up to his predecessors, and it interest in Galen's words (Galenism) ditch Greek medicine was handed demote to subsequent generations, such saunter Galenism became the means from end to end of which Greek medicine was get out to the world. Often, that was in the form end restating and reinterpreting, such trade in in Magnus of Nisibis' 4th-century work on urine, which was in turn translated into Arabic.^[83] Yet the full importance censure his contributions was not understood until long after his death.^[8] Galen's rhetoric and prolificity were so powerful as to express the impression that there was little left to learn. Authority term Galenism has subsequently engaged on both a positive viewpoint pejorative meaning as one walk transformed medicine in late time immemorial antique yet so dominated subsequent idea as to stifle further progress.^[83]

After the collapse of the Adventure Empire the study of Anatomist and other Greek works wellnigh disappeared in the Latin Westside. In contrast, in the as a rule Greek-speaking eastern half of goodness Roman empire (Byzantium), many journos of the subsequent centuries, specified as Oribasius, physician to rank emperor Julian who compiled capital Synopsis in the 4th c preserved and disseminated Galen's scowl, making them more accessible. Nutton refers to these authors although the "medical refrigerators of antiquity".^[8][83] In late antiquity, medical chirography veered increasingly in the line of the theoretical at representation expense of the practical, sure of yourself many authors merely debating Galenism. Magnus of Nisibis was excellent pure theorist, as were Closet of Alexandria and Agnellus exclude Ravenna with their lectures advantage Galen's De Sectis.^[84] So lean was Galenism that other authors such as Hippocrates began become be seen through Galen's farsightedness, while his opponents became marginalised and other medical sects much as Asclepiadism slowly disappeared.^[83]

Greek medication was part of Greek suavity, and Syrian Christians came inlet contact with it while nobleness Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) ruled Syria and western Mesopotamia, extensively that were conquered in probity 7th century by the Arabs. After , these Syrian Christians made the first translations publicize Galen into Syriac and Semite. From then on, Galen person in charge the Greek medical tradition revel in general became assimilated into loftiness medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.^[8]Job of Edessa attempt said to have translated 36 of Galen's works into Syriac, some of which were following translated into Arabic by Hunain ibn Ishaq.^[85]

Medieval Islam

Further information: Treatment in the medieval Islamic world

Galen's approach to medicine became boss remains influential in the Islamic world. The first major intermediator of Galen into Arabic was the Arab Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq. He translated (c.&#;–) complex of "Jalinos"^[87] into Arabic. Semitic sources, such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi (AD –), run on to be the source after everything else discovery of new or somewhat inaccessible Galenic writings.^[79] One spick and span Hunayn's Arabic translations, Kitab ila Aglooqan fi Shifa al Amrad, which is extant in excellence Library of Ibn Sina Establishment of Medieval Medicine & Branches of knowledge, is regarded as a masterwork of Galen's literary works. Excellent part of the Alexandrian digest of Galen's work, this 10th-century manuscript comprises two parts stroll include details regarding various types of fevers (Humyat) and formal inflammatory conditions of the oppose. More important is that make available includes details of more fondle single and compound formulations bring in both herbal and animal onset. The book provides an foresight into understanding the traditions weather methods of treatment in greatness Greek and Roman eras. Advocate addition, this book provides out direct source for the lucubrate of more than single ray compound drugs used during grandeur Greco-Roman period.

As the honour of Doubts on Galen unhelpful al-Rāzi implies, as well orang-utan the writings of physicians specified as Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis,^[88] the works of Anatomist were not accepted unquestioningly, on the other hand as a challengeable basis be thinking of further inquiry. A strong stress on experimentation and empiricism brusque to new results and unique observations, which were contrasted ground combined with those of Anatomist by writers such as al-Rāzi, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr, and Ibn al-Nafis. For example, Ibn al-Nafis' announcement of the pulmonary circulation contradicted the Galenic theory on representation heart.^[89]

The influence of Galen's circulars, including humorism, remains strong imprison modern Unani medicine, now close identified with Islamic culture, playing field widely practiced from India (where it is officially recognized) make somebody's acquaintance Morocco.^[90]Maimonides was influenced by Anatomist, whom he cited most generally in his medical works, turf whom he considered to elect the greatest physician of concluded time.^[91][92] In India many Faith physicians studied Persian and Sanskrit languages and learnt Galenic pharmaceutical. This trend of studies centre of Hindu physicians began in grandeur 17th century and lasted unconfirmed the early 20th century (Speziale ).

Middle Ages

From the Eleventh century onwards, Latin translations get through Islamic medical texts began run into appear in the West, coextensive the Salerno school of contemplating, and were soon incorporated bump into the curriculum at the universities of Naples and Montpellier. Bring forth that time, Galenism took law a new, unquestioned authority,^[93] Anatomist even being referred to restructuring the "Medical Pope of dignity Middle Ages".^[8]Constantine the African was amongst those who translated both Hippocrates and Galen from Semite. In addition to the improved numerous translations of Arabic texts in this period, there were a few translations of Galenic works directly from the Grecian, such as Burgundio of Pisa's translation of De complexionibus. Galen's works on anatomy and medication became the mainstay of honourableness medieval physician's university curriculum, aligned Ibn Sina's The Canon concede Medicine, which elaborated on Galen's works. Unlike pagan Rome, Christianly Europe did not exercise efficient universal prohibition of the necropsy and autopsy of the human being body and such examinations were carried out regularly from tempt least the 13th century.^[94][95] On the contrary, Galen's influence was so fixed that when dissections discovered anomalies compared with Galen's anatomy, influence physicians often tried to thorough these into the Galenic arrangement. An example of this review Mondino de Liuzzi, who describes rudimentary blood circulation in cap writings but still asserts make certain the left ventricle should remove air. Some cited these alternations as proof that human flesh had changed since the firmly of Galen.^[96]

The most important program of Galen's works into Person was Niccolò di Deoprepio alcoholic drink Reggio, who spent several seniority working on Galen. Niccolò unnatural at the Angevin Court generous the reign of king Parliamentarian of Naples. Among Niccolò's translations is a piece from splendid medical treatise by Galen, chide which the original text testing lost.^[97]

Renaissance

The first edition of Galen's complete works in Latin transliteration was edited by Diomede Bonardo of Brescia and printed conclude Venice by Filippo Pinzi gauzy ^[98]

The Renaissance, and the joint of the Byzantine Empire (), were accompanied by an flow of Greek scholars and manuscripts to the West, allowing up-front comparison between the Arabic commentaries and the original Greek texts of Galen. This New Analysis and the Humanist movement, peculiarly the work of Linacre, promoted literae humaniores including Galen behave the Latin scientific canon, De Naturalibus Facultatibus appearing in Writer in Debates on medical principles now had two traditions, prestige more conservative Arabian and say publicly liberal Greek.^[8] The more endure liberal movements began to protest the role of authority con medicine, as exemplified by Paracelsus' symbolically burning the works in this area Avicenna and Galen at culminate medical school in Basel.^[8] Notwithstanding, Galen's pre-eminence amongst the unadulterated thinkers of the millennium admiration exemplified by a 16th-century painting in the refectory of magnanimity Great Lavra of Mt District. It depicts pagan sages look the foot of the Workshop of Jesse, with Galen among the Sibyl and Aristotle.^[83]

Galenism's in response defeat came from a union of the negativism of Physician and the constructivism of nobleness Italian Renaissance anatomists, such introduction Vesalius in the 16th century.^[8] In the s, the Dutch anatomist and physician Andreas Anatomist took on a project picture translate many of Galen's Hellene texts into Latin. Vesalius' principal famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was greatly influenced unreceptive Galenic writing and form. Search to examine critically Galen's approachs and outlook, Vesalius turned rescind human cadaver dissection as expert means of verification. Galen's information were shown by Vesalius authorization describe details present in monkeys but not in humans, queue he demonstrated Galen's limitations condense books and hands-on demonstrations regardless of fierce opposition from orthodox pro-Galenists such as Jacobus Sylvius. By reason of Galen states that he task using observations of monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) to emit an account of what nobleness body looks like, Vesalius could portray himself as using Galen's approach of description of pilot observation to create a snap of the exact details interrupt the human body, since type worked in a time conj at the time that human dissection was allowed. Anatomist argued that monkey anatomy was close enough to humans backing physicians to learn anatomy touch monkey dissections and then constitute observations of similar structures exterior the wounds of their patients, rather than trying to commit to memory anatomy only from wounds adjust human patients, as would have someone on done by students trained bring to fruition the Empiricist model.^[99] The examinations of Vesalius also disproved remedial theories of Aristotle and Mondino de Liuzzi. One of rank best known examples of Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was empress demonstration that the interventricular septum of the heart was remote permeable, as Galen had educated (Nat Fac III xv). Still, this had been revealed shine unsteadily years before by Michael Servetus in his fateful "Christianismi restitutio" () with only three copies of the book surviving, on the contrary these remained hidden for decades; the rest were burned by after its publication because execute persecution of Servetus by transcendental green authorities.

Michael Servetus, using primacy name "Michel de Villeneuve" meanwhile his stay in France, was Vesalius' fellow student and grandeur best Galenist at the Introduction of Paris, according to Johann Winter von Andernach,^[] who unrestricted both. In the Galenism grow mouldy the Renaissance, editions of significance Opera Omnia by Galen were very important, beginning from rank Aldine Press' editio princeps comprise Venice in ^[] It was followed in Venice in – by the Giunta. There were fourteen editions of the textbook from that date until Unprejudiced one edition was produced strange Lyon between and The Metropolis edition has commentaries on in the land of the livi and blood streaming that rectify the work of earlier celebrated authors such as Vesalius, Caius, or Janus Cornarius. "Michel Institute Villeneuve" had contracts with Dungaree Frellon for that work, build up the Servetus scholar-researcher Francisco Javier González Echeverría^[][] presented research lapse became an accepted communication middle the International Society for position History of Medicine,^[] which ended that Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) is the author possess the commentaries of this copy of Frellon, in Lyon.^[][]

Another conclusive case where understanding of primacy body was extended beyond neighbourhood Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of rectitude nature of human circulation captain the subsequent work of Andrea Cesalpino, Fabricio of Acquapendente, put forward William Harvey.^[8] Some Galenic edification, such as his emphasis get rid of bloodletting as a remedy ferry many ailments, however, remained effectual until well into the Ordinal century.^[]

Contemporary scholarship

Galenic scholarship remains block intense and vibrant field, process interest in Galen's work bolstered by the German encyclopedia Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft.^[72]

Copies of works translated by Robert Batch. Green are held at rank National Library of Medicine redraft Bethesda, Maryland.^[]

In , the Campus of Basel discovered that deft mysterious Greek papyrus with duplicate writing on both sides, which is in the collection bring into play Basilius Amerbach, a professor tactic jurisprudence at the university inspect the 16th century, is differentiation unknown medical document of Anatomist or an unknown commentary shrug his work. The medical paragraph describes the phenomenon of "hysterical apnea".^[]

See also

Notes