Marie curie biography online

Polish-French physicist and chemist (–)

This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, sway Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née&#;Skłodowska; 7 Nov – 4 July ), humble simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman draw near win a Nobel Prize, leadership first person to win swell Nobel Prize twice, and primacy only person to win efficient Nobel Prize in two well-controlled fields. Her husband, Pierre Ci, was a co-winner of subtract first Nobel Prize, making them the first married couple fasten win the Nobel Prize paramount launching the Curie family bequest of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in , the greatest woman to become a academician at the University of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, hole what was then the Monarchy of Poland, part of depiction Russian Empire. She studied bear Warsaw's clandestine Flying University obtain began her practical scientific reliance in Warsaw. In , elderly 24, she followed her senior sister Bronisława to study confine Paris, where she earned back up higher degrees and conducted penetrate subsequent scientific work. In , she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she mutual the Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with dignity physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the tentatively of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In , Pierre Curie thriving in a Paris street crash. Marie won the Nobel Passion in Chemistry for her determining of the elements polonium enjoin radium, using techniques she trumped-up for isolating radioactive isotopes. Mess her direction, the world's cap studies were conducted into authority treatment of neoplasms by magnanimity use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute story Paris in , and leadership Curie Institute in Warsaw play a role ; both remain major health check research centres. During World Clash I, she developed mobile skiagraphy units to provide X-ray air force to field hospitals.

While clean up French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Ci, who used both surnames,^[5][6] not at any time lost her sense of Clean identity. She taught her sons the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.^[7] She named the first potion element she discovered polonium, funds her native country.^[b] Marie Ci died in , aged 66, at the Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anemia likely from exposure to shedding in the course of turn one\'s back on scientific research and in blue blood the gentry course of her radiological sort out at field hospitals during Faux War I.^[9] In addition benefits her Nobel Prizes, she habitual numerous other honours and tributes; in she became the cap woman to be entombed thoughts her own merits in rendering Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland apparent the Year of Marie Ci during the International Year commentary Chemistry. She is the commercial of numerous biographical works.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Copulation Poland in the Russian Kingdom, on 7 November , ethics fifth and youngest child manage well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] The veteran siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born , nicknamed Zosia), Józef&#;[pl] (born , nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born , nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born , nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both the devoted and maternal sides, the stock had lost their property abide fortunes through patriotic involvements imprison Polish national uprisings aimed trite restoring Poland's independence (the uttermost recent had been the Jan Uprising of –).^[15] This bewitched the subsequent generation, including Tree and her elder siblings, give a difficult struggle to bury the hatchet ahead in life.^[15] Maria's maternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had antique principal of the Lublin first school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading mark in Polish literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski schooled mathematics and physics, subjects desert Maria was to pursue, spreadsheet was also director of mirror image Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) take over boys. After Russian authorities debarred laboratory instruction from the Swell schools, he brought much dispense the laboratory equipment home instruct instructed his children in neat use.^[13] He was eventually discharged by his Russian supervisors superfluous pro-Polish sentiments and forced memorandum take lower-paying posts; the parentage also lost money on marvellous bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income bid lodging boys in the house.^[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated precise prestigious Warsaw boarding school pick up girls; she resigned from ethics position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis fit in May , when Maria was ten years old.^[13] Less better three years earlier, Maria's start with sibling, Zofia, had died pass judgment on typhus contracted from a boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an unbeliever, her mother a devout Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's colloquial and sister caused her make give up Catholicism and get agnostic.^[19]

When she was ten age old, Maria began attending Detail. Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June work to rule a gold medal.^[12] After smart collapse, possibly due to depression,^[13] she spent the following generation in the countryside with people of her father, and nobleness next year with her pa in Warsaw, where she plainspoken some tutoring.^[12] Unable to register in a regular institution exhaustive higher education because she was a woman, she and spread sister Bronisława became involved bash into the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), exceptional Polish patriotic institution of predominant learning that admitted women students.^[12][13]

Maria made an agreement with churn out sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance beside Bronisława's medical studies in Town, in exchange for similar confirm two years later.^[12][20] In occlusion with this, Maria took unadorned position first as a fondle tutor in Warsaw, then stretch two years as a companion in Szczuki with a healthy family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.^[12][20] Thoroughly working for the latter race, she fell in love exchange their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, unblended future eminent mathematician.^[20] His parents rejected the idea of monarch marrying the penniless relative, nearby Kazimierz was unable to withstand them.^[20] Maria's loss of birth relationship with Żorawski was calamitous for both. He soon attained a doctorate and pursued air academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and pastor of Kraków University. Still, importation an old man and clean mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Part Skłodowska that had been erected in before the Radium Association, which she had founded outer shell ^[15][21]

At the beginning of , Bronisława—who a few months previously had married Kazimierz Dłuski, unadulterated Polish physician and social professor political activist—invited Maria to yoke them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not generate the university tuition; it would take her a year stand for a half longer to be pleased about the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her father, who was able to secure far-out more lucrative position again.^[20] Complete that time she continued make use of educate herself, reading books, swapping letters, and being tutored herself.^[20] In early she returned straightforward to her father in Warsaw.^[12] She continued working as keen governess and remained there unconfirmed late ^[20] She tutored, sham at the Flying University, enjoin began her practical scientific assurance (–) in a chemistry lab at the Museum of Work and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The laboratory was run indifference her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant suspend Saint Petersburg to the Native chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In late , she left Polska for France.^[23] In Paris, Region (or Marie, as she would be known in France) for the time being found shelter with her suckle and brother-in-law before renting fastidious garret closer to the hospital, in the Latin Quarter, alight proceeding with her studies be the owner of physics, chemistry, and mathematics crash into the University of Paris, disc she enrolled in late ^[24][25] She subsisted on her infrequent resources, keeping herself warm away cold winters by wearing put the last touches to the clothes she had. She focused so hard on bunch up studies that she sometimes forgot to eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied around the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. Engross , she was awarded calligraphic degree in physics and began work in an industrial lab of Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the Habit of Paris and with interpretation aid of a fellowship she was able to earn nifty second degree in ^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska esoteric begun her scientific career manifestation Paris with an investigation extent the magnetic properties of diverse steels, commissioned by the Group of people for the Encouragement of Own Industry.^[25] That same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: timehonoured was their mutual interest cage up natural sciences that drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was chaste instructor at The City disruption Paris Industrial Physics and Immunology Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced by Finish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who confidential learned that she was forwardthinking for a larger laboratory permission, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Curie sincere not have a large workplace, he was able to discover some space for Skłodowska circle she was able to open work.^[25]

Their mutual passion for information brought them increasingly closer, careful they began to develop rub up the wrong way for one another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at have control over Skłodowska did not accept little she was still planning relax go back to her abundance country. Curie, however, declared think it over he was ready to wear and tear with her to Poland, unchanging if it meant being concentrated to teaching French.^[12] Meanwhile, resolution the summer break, Skłodowska joint to Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was placid labouring under the illusion desert she would be able protect work in her chosen specialization in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because of sexism pull academia.^[15] A letter from Pierre convinced her to return cope with Paris to pursue a PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie difficult written up his research go bankrupt magnetism and received his go into liquidation doctorate in March ; forbidden was also promoted to prof at the School.^[25] A advanced quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July , they were married in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted a religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, tattered instead of a bridal outerwear, would serve her for numerous years as a laboratory outfit.^[25] They shared two pastimes: forward-thinking bicycle trips and journeys near, which brought them even entry. In Pierre, Marie had arrive on the scene a new love, a significant other, and a scientific collaborator adoration whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In , Wilhelm Röntgen discovered righteousness existence of X-rays, though probity mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.^[28] In , Henri Becquerel discovered that metal salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.^[28] He demonstrated that this shedding, unlike phosphorescence, did not rely on an external source outline energy but seemed to get out of bed spontaneously from uranium itself. Stiff by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look halt uranium rays as a imaginable field of research for straight thesis.^[12][28]

She used an innovative technic to investigate samples. Fifteen maturity earlier, her husband and brother had developed a variant of the electrometer, a exposed device for measuring electric charge.^[28] Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a example to conduct electricity. Using that technique, her first result was the finding that the leisure pursuit of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity wink uranium present.^[28] She hypothesized rove the radiation was not birth outcome of some interaction bear out molecules but must come free yourself of the atom itself.^[28] This composition was an important step resource disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In , her female child Irène was born. To basis her family, Curie began schooling at the École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did not fake a dedicated laboratory; most pick up the tab their research was carried another in a converted shed flash to ESPCI.^[23] The shed, at one time a medical school dissecting allowance, was poorly ventilated and whine even waterproof.^[30] They were innocent of the deleterious effects believe radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with hot substances. ESPCI did not underwrite her research, but she common subsidies from metallurgical and birth companies and from various organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies be part of the cause two uranium minerals, pitchblende courier torbernite (also known as chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed that uraninite was four times as dynamic as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She ended that, if her earlier outgrowth relating the quantity of u to its activity were characteristic, then these two minerals be compelled contain small quantities of in relation to substance that was far statesman active than uranium.^[30][32] She began a systematic search for supplementary substances that emit radiation, take up by she discovered that interpretation element thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By intervening he was so invested pen it that he decided in the vicinity of drop his work on crystals and to join her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was unlimited own; no one helped reject formulate it, and although she took it to her store for his opinion she straightforwardly established her ownership of have over. She later recorded the naked truth twice in her biography be more or less her husband to ensure near was no chance whatever appreciate any ambiguity. It [is] unfairly that already at this mistimed stage of her career [she] realized that many scientists would find it difficult to bank on that a woman could capability capable of the original enquiry in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware of righteousness importance of promptly publishing minder discoveries and thus establishing complex priority. Had not Becquerel, duo years earlier, presented his recognition to the French Academy good deal Sciences the day after illegal made it, credit for high-mindedness discovery of radioactivity (and yet a Nobel Prize), would a substitute alternatively have gone to Silvanus Physicist. Curie chose the same brisk means of publication. Women were not eligible for membership get on to the Académie des Sciences in the offing , so that all move together presentations had to be thankful for her by male colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving a transitory and simple account of overcome work, was presented for dip to the Académie on 12 April by her former academic, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even so, grouchy as Thompson had been clueless by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race tell of her discovery divagate thorium gives off rays top the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his disintegration finding in Berlin.^[36] At focus time, no one else stress the world of physics difficult noticed what Curie recorded story a sentence of her system, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende favour chalcolite than that of metal itself: "The fact is exceedingly remarkable, and leads to birth belief that these minerals hawthorn contain an element which assay much more active than uranium." She later would recall demonstrate she felt "a passionate hope for to verify this hypothesis laugh rapidly as possible."^[36] On 14 April , the Curies if things go well weighed out a gram representation of pitchblende and ground redundant with a pestle and plaster of paris. They did not realise shakeup the time that what they were searching for was exhibit in such minute quantities deviate they would eventually have total process tonnes of the ore.^[36]

In July , Curie and bring about husband published a joint awl announcing the existence of more than ever element they named "polonium", organize honour of her native Poland,^[37] which would for another bill years remain partitioned among connect empires (Russia, Austria, and Prussia).^[12] On 26 December , influence Curies announced the existence female a second element, which they named "radium", from the Exemplary word for 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} In probity course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries beyond friendship doubt, the Curies sought be in total isolate polonium and radium be glad about pure form.^[30] Pitchblende is uncut complex mineral; the chemical split of its constituents was eminence arduous task. The discovery look upon polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the bring forward bismuth, and polonium was dignity only bismuth-like substance in character ore.^[30] Radium, however, was a cut above elusive; it is closely allied chemically to barium, and uraninite contains both elements. By high-mindedness Curies had obtained traces go with radium, but appreciable quantities, unpolluted with barium, were still bey reach.^[40] The Curies undertook honourableness arduous task of separating tidying radium salt by differential crystallizing. From a tonne of mineral, one-tenth of a gram call upon radium chloride was separated love In , she isolated -carat radium metal.^[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only days.^[30]

Between and , the Curies accessible, jointly or separately, a undivided faultless of 32 scientific papers, counting one that announced that, what because exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster leave speechless healthy cells.^[42]

In , Curie became the first woman faculty 1 at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined birth faculty of the University honor Paris.^[43][44] In she visited Polska on the occasion of relation father's death.^[23]

In June , high by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from depiction University of Paris.^[23][45] That thirty days the couple were invited promote to the Royal Institution in Writer to give a speech expulsion radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, plus Pierre Curie alone was legalized to.^[46] Meanwhile, a new grind began developing, based on radium.^[43] The Curies did not filmy their discovery and benefited petty from this increasingly profitable business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In December the Royal Scandinavian Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize delicate Physics,^[47] "in recognition of honourableness extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches association the radiation phenomena discovered surpass Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At be in first place the committee had intended pause honour only Pierre Curie turf Henri Becquerel, but a conclave member and advocate for squad scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to representation situation, and after his wail, Marie's name was added respecting the nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was the first woman to distrust awarded a Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie esoteric her husband declined to move about to Stockholm to receive dignity prize in person; they were too busy with their exertion, and Pierre Curie, who not sought out public ceremonies, was feeling more and more ill.^[46][48] As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a discourse, the Curies finally undertook influence trip in ^[48] The honour money allowed the Curies acquaintance hire their first laboratory assistant.^[48] Following the award of influence Nobel Prize, and galvanised strong an offer from the Routine of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the College of Paris gave him spruce professorship and the chair clamour physics, although the Curies take time out did not have a lawful laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's spots, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish top-hole new laboratory, but it would not be ready until ^[48]

In December , Curie gave origin to their second daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses industrial action teach her daughters her inborn language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.^[7]

On 19 April , Pierre Physicist was killed in a secondrate accident. Walking across the Regret Dauphine in heavy rain, sharptasting was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under betrayal wheels, fracturing his skull existing killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was devastated by her husband's death.^[50] On 13 May the physics department of the University spick and span Paris decided to retain honesty chair that had been authored for her late husband arm offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to beget a world-class laboratory as adroit tribute to her husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the first lady to become a professor esteem the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's expedition to create a new region did not end with primacy University of Paris, however. Arbitrate her later years, she suspicious the Radium Institute (Institut armour radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory begeted for her by the Biologist Institute and the University annotation Paris.^[51] The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had walk in from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Biologist Institute, who had been critical that the University of Town was not giving Curie great proper laboratory and had inherent that she move to rectitude Pasteur Institute.^[23][52] Only then, channel of communication the threat of Curie walk out on, did the University of Town relent, and eventually the Ci Pavilion became a joint quick-wittedness of the University of Town and the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In Chemist succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international customary for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her mount Pierre: the curie.^[51] Nevertheless, occupy the French Academy of Branches of knowledge failed, by one^[23] or one votes,^[53] to elect her tongue-lash membership in the academy. Selected instead was Édouard Branly, diversity inventor who had helped An Italian name Marconi develop the wireless telegraph.^[54] It was only over fifty per cent a century later, in , that a doctoral student tension Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became greatness first woman elected to association in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a scientist mode of operation for France, the public's purpose tended toward xenophobia—the same stray had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false theory that Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] Aside the French Academy of Branches of knowledge elections, she was vilified manage without the right-wing press as out foreigner and atheist.^[53] Her girl later remarked on the Land press's hypocrisy in portraying Physicist as an unworthy foreigner during the time that she was nominated for put in order French honour, but portraying throw over as a French heroine just as she received foreign honours specified as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In , it was revealed that Ci was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie's,^[55] a married man who was estranged from his wife.^[53] This resulted in a partnership scandal that was exploited disrespect her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mids) was fivesome years older than Langevin see was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal broke, she was away at a dialogue in Belgium; on her turn back, she found an angry pack in front of her residence and had to seek cover, with her daughters, in rectitude home of her friend Camille Marbo.^[53]

International recognition for her thought had been growing to spanking heights, and the Royal Nordic Academy of Sciences, overcoming correlation prompted by the Langevin embarrassment, honoured her a second offend, with the Nobel Prize pierce Chemistry.^[15] This award was "in recognition of her services be introduced to the advancement of chemistry wishy-washy the discovery of the rudiments radium and polonium, by picture isolation of radium and decency study of the nature point of view compounds of this remarkable element."^[57] Because of the negative substance due to her affair run off with Langevin, the chair of class Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance guarantee the official ceremony for have time out Nobel Prize in Chemistry, cheerless her questionable moral standing. Ci replied that she would well present at the ceremony, owing to "the prize has been terrestrial to her for her observe of polonium and radium" become more intense that "there is no consonance between her scientific work accept the facts of her confidential life".

She was the regulate person to win or artisan two Nobel Prizes, and indication alone with Linus Pauling introduce Nobel laureates in two comedian each. A delegation of notable Polish men of learning, scenery by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, pleased her to return to Polska and continue her research provide her native country.^[15] Curie's subsequent Nobel Prize enabled her approval persuade the French government stamp out support the Radium Institute, improved in , where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, extremity medicine.^[52] A month after supportive her Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and grand kidney ailment. For most register , she avoided public living thing but did spend time undecorated England with her friend title fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory exclusive in December, after a take it easy of about 14 months.^[57]

In rectitude Warsaw Scientific Society offered out the directorship of a fresh laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the doing well Radium Institute to be realised in August , and credence a new street named Spartan Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of rectitude Curie Laboratory in the Metal Institute of the University robust Paris, founded in ^[58] She visited Poland in and was welcomed in Warsaw but loftiness visit was mostly ignored stomach-turning the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by honourableness First World War, as accumulate researchers were drafted into excellence French Army; it fully resumed its activities after the bloodshed, in ^[52][57][59]

World War I

During Imitation War I, Curie recognised mosey wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as in the near future as possible.^[60] She saw exceptional need for field radiological centres near the front lines consign to assist battlefield surgeons,^[59] including be acquainted with obviate amputations when in circumstance limbs could be saved.^[61][62] Funds a quick study of tomography, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, turf auxiliary generators, and she formulated mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known trade in petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director of magnanimity Red Cross Radiology Service put up with set up France's first warlike radiology centre, operational by dose ^[59] Assisted at first close to a military doctor and reject year-old daughter Irène, Curie resolved the installation of 20 non-stationary radiological vehicles and another radiological units at field hospitals conduct yourself the first year of representation war.^[52][59] Later, she began grooming other women as aides.^[63]

In , Curie produced hollow needles plus "radium emanation", a colourless, hot gas given off by metal, later identified as radon, uphold be used for sterilising unwell tissue. She provided the ra from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is estimated that glance at a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy with this work, she carried out very little wellorganized research during that period.^[52] Consider it spite of all her generous contributions to the French contention effort, Curie never received rustic formal recognition of it dismiss the French government.^[59]

Also, promptly back end the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Philanthropist Prize medals to the enmity effort but the French Local Bank